Wednesday Softball Dispersal List:

Go directly to your assigned classroom at 8:45 
Continue with your Math Workbook pages, bring a novel of your choice and assist the teacher with any peer-tutoring if asked.

Pedace: Olivia, Raquel, Isabelle.
Urbani: Leonardo, Dominic, Juan.
Ulatowska: Concetta, Angela, Emily, Megan.
Tassone: Evan, Evidence.
Bucci: Alona, Beatriz, Melissa.
Di Nizio: Michael.
Verrelli: Carter, Christian.
Linowski: Alexia, Victoria, Giulia.
Toso: Clinton, Mario, Nicholas.

Optional Father’s Day Gift

Check your email for template to create metal plaque.  Do not move the black border nor the fine line around it.  You may format only the color of the black border, but not its thickness.  Insert a high resolution jpeg picture of you and your Dad within the black border from a digital camera, not camera phone, since the pixels aren’t as good and will result in a slightly fuzzy transfer.  Stretch jpeg out and crop it to fit the space accordingly.  Overlap any text of your choice with a loving message to your Dad using a good, legible font/color.  If you import clip art from Google Images make sure you select size Large for good resolution.  You could also use the space to create a collage of you and your dad – be creative.  The final product will measure 8”x10” portrait and will be sublimated onto aluminum metal.  Email your PPTX to stsimon56@gmail.com  Cost 10$  I will have them ready on Friday. 

Read-a-thon money is due Monday.

Social Studies Presentations continue Monday with the following groups:

1. Evan & Evidence
2. Dominic, Juan & Michael
3. Beatriz, Alona, Melissa
4. Nicolas, Mario & Clinton
5. Isabelle, Alexia & Raquel
6. Olivia, Giulia & Victoria

Gr.5/6 Social Studies: Ancient Civilizations/First Nations Aboriginal Task

Success Criteria	Level 1 Limited -Needs Improvement	Level 2 Adequate - Satisfactory	Level 3 Good – Very Competent	Level 4 Successful - Proficient
Oral Communication ·         Audience interaction ·         Intonation, clarity ·         Self-confidence, enthusiasm
Task Focus ·         Gr.5s present 1 key aspect of a particular ancient civilization that deals with their cultural, social, economic or political achievements ·         Gr.6s compare & contrast Aboriginal cultural, social, economic or political achievements with current culture/know-how
Ideas ·         Specific, organized, understandable, detailed
Choice of task presentation ·         Showcases key ideas in an engaging, creative and informative manner

Social Studies 5/6

Gr.5s continue working on your Ancient Civilizations task.
Gr.6s continue working on your Aboriginals task.
Presentations will begin this Friday.

Grade 6 Social Studies Task Instructions

Gr.6s Social Studies Team Task

• Read Contributions of First Nations People in Canada Revisited text pgs.216-217 explaining how they helped the European Explorers survive, prosper and settle their new colonies in present-day Canada.
• Read Aboriginal Culture in Canada Revisited text pgs.22-25 explaining how they met their physical needs (food, clothing, shelter), pyschological needs (beliefs, values, living in harmony with nature) and their group needs (government, security, decision-making process)

Working cooperatively with a partner, compare and contrast Aboriginal culture and "know-how" with present-day culture and "know-how".

Present your similarities and differences using either a:

• skit
• song
• poster
• venn diagram
• prezi
• pixie
• diorama
• photo collage using Picasa

Ancient Civilizations Reading: Dominic, Juan, Michael

Ancient Chinese Civilization

Dominic, Juan, Michael

GEOGRAPHY

For thousands of years, the ancient Chinese thought they were pretty much alone on the planet Earth. They knew there were people to the north, the Felt Tent People - the Mongols - but they did not know that other advanced ancient civilizations existed anywhere else.

China's natural barriers to the west, south, and east helped to protect these early people from invasion.

China's natural barriers include seas - the China Sea and the  Yellow Sea, both located in the Pacific Ocean. These seas provide a huge coastline, which provided trade routes and easy access to food.

China's natural barriers also include mountains, deserts, and rivers.  As you can see, China has many natural barriers, all of which helped to keep her isolated from the rest of the world for many thousands of years.

DYNASTY

Many dynasties in Ancient China lasted for hundreds of years. But the Qin Dynasty lasted for only 15 years. Yet, First Emperor Qin accomplished an amazing amount of change.  

Qin was the first man to control all of China. He did not want to be called a king. he called himself First Emperor Qin. He died of natural causes. But in the short time that he ruled China, he readied China to be pulled together as one country. But at what cost?

First Emperor Qin was a legalist. Legalists believe that people are basically bad. They believe that it is necessary to control and regulate every minute of people's lives so they have the discipline needed to work hard in the fields and in battle.

Qin ran his dynasty with absolute control and swift harsh punishment. It was illegal to whine about Qin's government. If you simply suggested that things might be improved, you could be put to death without a trial.

Bureaucracy: To control his people, First Emperor Qin developed a system of bureaucracy. He divided his empire into 36 provinces. Each province was divided into districts. He put two government officials in charge of each province. It was their job to put strong people in charge of each district. 

Workers were well trained and paid. They reported to supervisors. People at each level supervised those below them.

Spy System: To make sure everyone did their job correctly, First Emperor Qin set up a spy system. People had to spy on each other - it was the law. People had to spy on each at work and at home in their neighborhood or village. If people turned in lawbreakers, they were rewarded. If they did not, they were executed. It was a simple system, and it worked very well.

This organization system gave Qin great power. That power allowed him to make huge changes. Qin knew that to unify China there had to be big changes. Most of his laws had something to do with protection. 

Changes: 

Land: First Emperor Qin took land away from the nobles. He did not want the nobles rising up against him. Anyone who argued with Qin was either buried alive or put to work building the Great Wall.

Standardization: He introduced one system of weights, measures, money, written language, and laws. Nobody argued with him. 

Law Code: He introduced a new law code that applied to everybody. He created a huge law enforcement group, whose job was to enforce the laws. 

Peasants: Peasants were assigned a job. They were either assigned the job of farmer or of silk maker. It they tried to do anything else besides their assigned job, they were sent to work on the Great Wall. If people were lazy or slow at doing their assigned job, they were sent to work on the wall. 

Censorship: Qin practiced total censorship. He persecuted scholars and destroyed books. He defined useless books as any book about anything except books about medicine, agriculture, or prophecy. Useless books were burned. Over 400 scholars who refused to turn in books were either buried alive or sent to work on the wall. Qin did not believe in any education for the common man. According to Qin, the more time people spent studying, the less time they had to grow food. He especially disliked the teachings of Confucius. He had all Confucius' books burned.  

Qin did not think his rule was cruel. He said, "A thousand may die so that a million may live." He built roads, canals, and bridges. His public works projects probably saved millions of lives that would have been lost to floods and famine. Although many people died building the Great Wall, it did provide an advantage in war. 

No rebellion occurred during his rule. He died in 210 BCE. Once he was dead, his son took over. His son did not rule for long. People revolted again the Qin government all over the countryside. 

The peasant who led that revolt became the new emperor. His dynasty was called the Han Dynasty. Life vastly improved during the Han Dynasty.

THE GREAT WALL

The Chinese worked on the Great Wall for over 1700 years. In turn, each emperor who came to power added pieces of the wall to protect their dynasties. But the wall was not a solid wall. It was  a line of disconnected barricades.   

First Emperor Qin wanted a much better barricade to protect his people from the Mongol invaders to the north. He wanted a strong wall 30 feet wide and 50 feet high.

First Emperor Qin used peasants, captured enemies, criminals, scholars, and anyone else who irritated him, and put them all to work building the Great Wall. Laborers were not paid for their work. It was slave labor.

About 3000 people worked on the wall during the Qin Dynasty. Rocks fell on people. Walls caved in. Workers died of exhaustion and disease. Laborers were fed only enough food to keep them alive. There is an old Chinese saying, "Each stone in the wall represents a life lost in the wall's construction.

This project continued long after First Emperor Qin’s death. Building the wall was a project that continued for many hundreds of years until the wall was over 3700 miles long. Most emperors used the same system that Qin used, forced labor.  

Today, the Great Wall still stands. It can be seen from space, it’s that big!

CULTURE

This holiday is celebrated approximately 15 days after the start of the Chinese New Year. Chinese Lantern Festival is very old.

Legend says . .

There are many wonderful stories about how the Lantern Festival first began. One story is that in ancient times, people would go in search of spirits with burning sticks. They thought the spirits could be seen during a full moon.

Another is about a lonely young girl, in Han times, who tricked an emperor into having a wonderful festival just so she could visit with her family! The emperor had such a good time, he decided to make this festival an annual event!

TRADE

The Silk Road was not actually a road. It was not paved. It was not even a single route. 

The Silk Road was a name given to any route that led across China to Rome. It was a 4000-mile trip. At one end was China. At the other end was Rome.

Each had something the other wanted. Rome had gold and silver and precious gems. China had silk and spices and ivory.

Ideas also traveled along the Silk Road, ideas that affected everyone.

The Romans were not surprised to hear of another great civilization hidden over the mountains. They had been looking for “the Silk People” for a long time. 

The Romans discovered pieces of silk from some of the people they conquered. Silk quickly became popular in Rome. But it was scarce. The Romans wanted more silk. But they did not know who was making this wonderful material.  

The Romans tried to find the traders as they came into the towns and villages. But the traders hid from the Roman soldiers. They knew they had nothing to tell them. They did not know who was making the silk. They only traded for the silk. They traveled a short way along the silk road and traded with the people they found.

In frustration, the Romans sent out parties of soldiers to follow the Silk Road, and find the source, the people who were making the silk. Most of the soldiers never returned. Those who did reported they could not find a way through the desert. They had to turn back.   

It was incredibly dangerous to travel along the Silk Road. You faced desolate white-hot sand dunes in the desert, forbidding mountains, brutal winds, and poisonous snakes.  There was one nice section, called the Gansu Corridor, a relatively fertile strip that ran along the base of one of the mountains. To reach this strip, you had to cross the desert or the mountains. And of course, there were always bandits and pirates. 

Even the traders did not make the whole trip. They worked in relays. Each trader would go a certain distance, exchange their goods for other goods, and hopefully return. The next would move along the road, trade, and hopefully return.  There were three main routes, and all were dangerous.

Northern Route – Westward to Black Sea

Central Route – Westward to Persia, Mediterranean Sea, Rome

Southern Route – Westward to Iran, India

The Silk Road took caravans to the farthest extent of the Han Empire. Sections of the Great Wall were built along the northern side of the Gansu Corridor to try and prevent bandits from the north from harming the trade.

Over the centuries, the Silk Road developed a civilization of its own. Where possible, the Silk Road became lined with huge temples and booming cities. It became far easier to travel the road. But it was never easy. There were still vast stretches of deserts and mountains to cross, with no city or water in sight.

DYNASTY & DAILY LIFE

Han Introduction: This was not the Golden Age of China, but life was very good for many of the people because of the demand for Chinese silk. The creation of the "silk road" - the trade routes across the fierce deserts -  allowed trade to flourish more easily with the Roman Empire.

People bonded together into one civilization during Han times. They had a common culture. Even in remote sections, district officials copied the manner of the imperial court. Peasants built homes and plowed their fields in the same way all over China.

Han writing tells us little about their daily life. Han tombs, however, tell us quite a lot. The Hans buried clay models of their homes and belongings, in their tombs. Models included details like little clay furniture and little bronze oil lamps.

The Arts & Sciences: So much was lost during the book burnings of the Qin Dynasty. The Han people tried very hard to replace the literature that was lost during Qin times, especially the works of Confucius.

They created new works of literature and music. Beautiful murals were painted on the walls of palaces. Scroll painting began. Craftsmen made jade jewelry and carvings, gold ornaments and belt hooks, delicate paintings with wire thin brush strokes. Iron was used for making plows and other cast iron objects. Glazed pottery was brightly painted with lively hunting scenes, mountains, trees, clouds, dragons, tigers, and bears. Their medicine was advanced. They invented acupuncture. 

Their science was also advanced. During Han times, these ancient people invented paper. They also invented an instrument that told them when an earthquake was happening, somewhere in the Empire, so they could send troops and food to help. and little bronze oil lamps.

 The Arts & Sciences: So much was lost during the book burnings of the Qin Dynasty. The Han people tried very hard to replace the literature that was lost during Qin times, especially the works of Confucius.

They created new works of literature and music. Beautiful murals were painted on the walls of palaces. Scroll painting began. Craftsmen made jade jewelry and carvings, gold ornaments and belt hooks, delicate paintings with wire thin brush strokes. Iron was used for making plows and other cast iron objects. Glazed pottery was brightly painted with lively hunting scenes, mountains, trees, clouds, dragons, tigers, and bears. Their medicine was advanced. They invented acupuncture. 

Their science was also advanced. During Han times, these ancient people invented paper. They also invented an instrument that told them when an earthquake was happening, somewhere in the Empire, so they could send troops and food to help.

Public Schools: One of the Han emperors (Emperor Wudi), around 100 CE, agreed with Confucius that education was the key to good government. He started a system of public schools, for boys only, taught by Confucian teachers. The teachings of Confucius were nationally honored. Schools were set up in each providence. 

There was a major school, called the Grand School, in the capital. In the beginning, only 50 students were allowed to study at the Grand School.  In less than 100 years, enrollment at the Grand School was over 30,000 students.  

Jobs: Jobs were given to educated people, as well as nobles. People were paid for their work.

Life in the Cities: Only about 10% of the population (1 out of 10 people) lived in the cities. Cities were neatly laid out with main streets and alleyways. Each city was surrounded by a strong wall, made of earth and stone. As cities are today, the ancient Han cities were centers of government, education, and trade. Most marketplaces, throughout the city, had free entertainment. Musicians played bells, drums, and string instruments, and jugglers and acrobats performed.

The Poor: The poor lived in houses packed together. They had very little food, and little to no sanitation. Many of the young males joined street gangs. Gangs wore distinctive clothes and armor, that identified their gang. Teen gangs roamed the cities, terrorizing people.

The Rich: The rich rushed to imitate the imperial palace. They built elaborate homes, decorated with drapery, and cashmere carpets. They furnished family tombs with stone lions. On the lions, and on other sculpture, they added inscriptions mentioning how much each item had cost!

The rich lived in comfortable, large houses with many rooms and fireplaces. Each home was built around a central courtyard. They had elaborately carved furniture that showed Greek and Roman influence, and painted stuccoed walls with floral designs. Other walls were left bare to display paintings or bronze mirrors. Dinner was elaborate. Kids were tutored in science, math, literature, art, religion, and music. Some studied in their homes, and some at the home of their tutor. The rich did not use the public schools. They wore belted robes with long sleeves lined with silk. When it was cold, they wore warm fur coats, made of squirrel and fox skins and leather slippers.

Merchants & Craftsmen: As in Shang times, merchants were hardly recognized as men. Once the canals were built, some merchants and craftsmen became rich. A really successful merchant might ride in a cart with a coachman, buy a title from an emperor, and built a mansion surrounded by pools and gardens. This absolutely infuriated officials and peasants. (The merchants didn't till the soil. They weren't nobles. There ought to be a law, to stop them from doing this, and for a while, there was a law, forbidding them from riding in carts and chariots.)

Life in the Country: Country folk were farmers. They lived in one or two story mud houses with tiled or thatched roofs. They had curtains on the windows. Barns and other buildings surrounded the house. Several families lived in one house to allow them to work their fields together. 

They still did not own their farms, but farms were larger in size, because families had learned to team up. This solved a major problem. Together, they were able to produce more food, some years, than they needed, which allowed them to trade food for other items. 

They still worked very hard. They went to bed at dark and got up at dawn. They dressed in simple clothes. Both men and women wore shirts and pants made of scratchy cloth, and sandals made of straw. They stuffed their clothes with paper and cloth, to stay warm in the winter. They steamed much of their food over boiling water on stoves. In the south, they ate rice, steamed dumplings, and fish, flavored with garlic and onions. In the north, they ate much the same, only they ate wheat instead of rice.

Ancient Civilizations Reading: Olivia, Giulia, Victoria

ANCIENT AFRICAN CIVILIZATIONS

Olivia, Giulia, Victoria

GEOGRAPHY

2nd Largest Continent: Africa is the second largest continent in the world. (Asia is the largest.) Africa is three times the size of the continental United States. Measuring north to south, Africa is 5,200 miles long!  At its widest point, Africa is nearly as wide as it is long.  

Rivers: Africa has five huge river systems. The big three, in order of size, are the Nile, the Congo, and the Niger.

Oceans: In spite of its size, Africa has few natural harbors. If you wanted to visit Africa by boat, you would have to hunt for a safe place to land. Without a safe harbor, powerful ocean current would slam your boat into the rocks along the coastline. The Atlantic Ocean borders Africa to the west, the Indian Ocean borders Africa to the east, and the Mediterranean borders Africa to the north.  The Atlantic and Indian Oceans meet to border Africa to the south. Africa is nearly surrounded by water.

Landforms: Africa has rainforests, grasslands, and is home to the largest desert in the world, the Sahara. Africa does have a few mountain ranges, like the Atlas Mountains in the north. These are good size mountains, but they would appear to be hills if you put them next to the Alps or the Himalayas. Africa does not have a huge mountain range.

Prime Meridian: The prime meridian, which is the imaginary line that separates the world into Eastern and Western Hemispheres runs vertically through Africa. Another imaginary line runs horizontally though Africa – the Equator.

Nubia (Land of Gold): The Kingdom of Kush (also called Nubia - the Land of Gold) was located on the Nile River, to the south of ancient Egypt.

CULTURE & DAILY LIFE & RELIGION

Nubia was also known as the Land of the Bow because their archers were expert and fierce. The army of archers kept the Nubian people safe. It was important for them to be strong. Many kingdoms wanted to control Nubia. Nubia was a land of natural wealth. They had gold mines, ivory, incense, and iron ore. 

Unlike Egypt, they were not dependent upon the flooding of the Nile for good soil. They enjoyed tropical rainfall all year long.

Daily Life of the Common People: The common people lived in farming villages. Each village had a leader, but their role was suggestive rather than controlling. Each village worked together as a unit for the common good of the village. There was a division of labor. For the common people in ancient Kush, daily life was village life.

There was a place inside each village where the villagers would collect. And, there was a place where many villages collected. When there was a festival, the people in individual villages knew where the festival would be held if they were invited - it would be held at the place where many villages collected.

Daily Life of the Nobles: For many hundred of years, the nobles of ancient Kush thought of themselves as Egyptians. They dressed like Egyptians. Their homes were similar. The kings and nobles lived in riverside palaces. There were sailboats on the Nile. Their daily life was very much like the people they envied - the ancient Egyptians. As in ancient Egypt, many of their leaders were great Queens, not Kings.

When the capital of the Kushite kingdom was moved further south along the Nile, they began to act less like Egyptians and more like other civilizations in South Sahara Africa. Their jewelry changed. They began wearing anklets and ear studs.

Religion: In the beginning, they worshiped the same gods as did the ancient Egyptians, with a few extra throw in like the three-headed Lion God. They mummified their dead. They build pyramids. Kush pyramids looked a little differently - they had flat tops, but they served the same purpose; they were tombs. The people of Kush loved stories from the Bible. Many became Christians because of the Bible stories they heard from passing traders.

Kush - the Iron Capital of the Ancient African World: Although they were two different kingdoms, Egypt and Kush were linked by the Nile River, by a shared past, and by the economics of the day. Kush had something other kingdoms wanted. They had iron. This time in history was known as the Iron Age. From about 1000 BCE to about 1000 CE, iron was critically important. Iron was used to make tools and weapons. Kush was the iron center of ancient Africa. Kush was also one of the major gold producers in the ancient world.

Trade: Trade was very important to Kush. They established flourishing ports on the Red Sea. They tried to work out trade agreements with Egypt that would allow them free access to the Mediterranean via the Nile River. Egyptians depended on Kush for iron, gold, and for exotic goods like incense and ebony. Kush wanted Egyptian manufactured goods, especially their cotton, an export for which Egypt is still famous today.

Supply and Demand: As the demand for iron grew, Kush ran into a problem. To make iron, they needed to wood to burn. They had used up much of their wood. Their resources were dwindling. Kush could not produce as much iron as they had in the past, yet demand for iron was growing. Traders began to look elsewhere for iron. As trade dwindled, the country began to weaken.

Kush looked around for new avenues of trade. They had incense. They had ivory. Certainly someone would want these wonderful products. The leaders of Kush began to turn their eyes towards the vast Sahara Desert. What it possible? Could they develop a trade route to the far away kings of which they had great things?

Camels (Ships of the Desert): Around 750 CE, everything changed when Islamic traders began to use camels to transports goods across the desert. The use of camels made it possible to get from Kush to West Africa, to literally get from here to there. 

The Trans-Sahara Trade Route:  The day the first caravan of camels headed west into the Sahara Desert was the day that marked the opening of the Trans-Sahara Trade Route.

RELIGION: The people in the villages believed that one god ruled the world, but that many gods were in charge of daily life. They believed in two worlds – the world on earth, and the world of the gods. Their religion was designed to bring these two worlds together so that the elders, their religious leaders, could talk to the gods of daily life and receive advice. To encourage these gods to drop by, they danced, and sang, rattled noisemakers, made masks, and feasted. Certainly, the gods would not wish to miss such a joyous time. 

ANCESTOR WORSHIP: They also asked their ancestors to talk to the gods on their behalf. They did many things to please their ancestors so that they would intercede on their behalf – things like storytelling and music and song and dance and feasting.

MAGIC: They believed in magic amulets. People would visit the village witchdoctor in hopes of finding help for their problems. The witchdoctor might make them a magic amulet. This could be a bag tied tightly with instructions not to open it. It could be anything. You might wear it around your neck. You might bury it and dance over it. You might give it to someone. 

The witchdoctors had a good understanding of the many herbs that could heal. They also had a good understanding of the hearts of people. It was no wonder the people believed in magic. The amulets often worked!

GOVERNMENT

Mali means "hippopotamus" or "where the king resides". Mali began as one of the districts in the Kingdom of Ghana. Around 1230 CE, Ghana collapsed and Mali took over. In time, they grew to be larger than Ghana.

The new king, Sundiata, was a very good king. He was young and strong, courageous and clever. He  kept the drums and storytellers busy with tales of his achievements and accomplishments. Sundiata the Hero was soon nicknamed the Lion King. 

Strength: He built a strong military to protect the routes. He had his army clear farmland to help the people get back on their feet. He introduced cotton.

Trade: During the war with Ghana, trade had just about disappeared. Trade was the way to wealth and he knew it. He sent messengers out across Africa saying, "The invaders are gone! Let us open up the trade routes!" And they did. Muslim merchants and scholars began to come to Mali.

Religious Freedom: He was a Muslim. He believed in one god - Allah. But he offered his people religious freedom. He allowed his people to worship many gods in the tradition African way. 

Reduction of Slavery: He allowed slaves to work for their freedom and to become an important part of the new Kingdom of Mali. If you were bright and capable and hard working and honest, he wanted you on his team. 

He took a kingdom and made it an empire. He ruled for 25 years, and his people loved him.

SLAVERY

Between 1450 and the late 1800's, it is estimated that between 10-15 MILLION Africans were kidnapped and sold into slavery. 

The expanding European empires in the New World, in North, South, and Central America,  lacked a major resource - workers. At first, the European colonists attempted to use Native Americans as a work force, but that did not work very well. Native Americans could slip away, and return with others to punish those who tried to enslave them.

The early colonists tried to bring people from Europe to work in the New World, both as indentured servants and as slaves. That did not work well either, especially in the tropical regions. The Europeans were not used to a tropical climate. Many died of disease. Some ran away and blended with other early colonists. 

The Portuguese soon discovered that Africans were excellent workers. They were used to more tropical climate conditions. The African people did not want to be slaves. They had to be captured and forced into slavery. A business sprang up - slavers. These were traders who captured and sold people into slavery. 

Many captured people died on the ships sailing to the New World. Conditions were terrible. People were packed into the hold of ship without regard to their safety or their most basic needs. The slaves who made it alive were strong workers and resistant to disease.

Ancient Civilizations Reading: Raquel, Alexia, Isabelle

ANCIENT MAYAN CIVILIZATION

Raquel, Alexia, Isabelle

GEOGRAPHY

 Uxmal, Mexico. Reputed to be one of the most beautiful Mayan cities, it holds the only known pyramid with an oval base. The Magician's Pyramid sits on one side of a square noted for its excellent acoustics. Grand terraces offer remarkable views.

Chichen Itza, Mexico. The most famous Mayan city, this was the capital of the second empire, which lasted from about 1000 to 1450. Its enormous pyramids, including the giant Castillo pyramid that houses a jaguar throne, hold remarkable carvings and murals. A nearby cenote, or natural well, was used for human sacrifices to the rain god.

Tulum, Mexico. Between 1200 and 1450, this seacoast city became a major Mayan port and the center of a vast trading network.

Tikal, Guatemala. The largest known Mayan city, Tikal is believed to have been home to more than 55,000 people in the year 700. The 60-square-mile site holds numerous pyramids, shrines, and ball courts, where Mayans played a sometimes dangerous version of soccer, reportedly using as balls human skulls, which could do serious damage if kicked into an opponent.

Copan, Honduras. A southern outpost of the first Mayan empire, which lasted from 300 to about 900, Copan boasts some of the best preserved ball courts ever found, along with the longest known Mayan stone inscription. The document has helped archaeologists decode some of the culture's mysterious hieroglyphs.

HISTORY & CULTURE

For a thousand years, they ruled what is today a large part of Mexico and southern Central America. They built huge cities and enormous pyramids that vaulted hundreds of feet into the skies. Then, seemingly in an instant, the Mayan Empire, the focus of the second episode of SPIRITS OF THE JAGUAR, collapsed, leaving thousands of elegant stone carvings hidden in the region's lush tropical forests. Even today, the ancient monuments are still being rediscovered.

The Mayans believed that they were created by gods who added their own blood to flour made from corn, a plant native to their Central American homelands. Thus, they were children of the corn, and along with gods personified by the fierce jaguar and the life-giving rain, they worshipped the tall grass that fed them.

In fact, it was their skill as farmers that allowed the Mayans to prosper. Reliable crops of corn, squash, and beans provided enough food for the Mayan population to grow and for some residents to specialize in new skills, unburdened by the need to tend the fields. Some of these specialists became architects, while others helped push Mayan mathematics and astronomy to remarkable heights.

Today, Mayan cities highlight just how much knowledge this society accumulated at its height 1,200 years ago. Ornate wall carvings are actually astonishingly detailed calendars that can still be used to predict eclipses and other astral events. Similarly, massive temples are also astronomical observatories designed to track the movements of the night sky. Windows and doors are perfectly aligned to channel the light of the sun at different times of the year or to highlight a sparkling planet.

By necessity, the Mayans were also expert geologists. Each of their great cities is situated next to a cenote, or natural well. The cave water was essential because, although they lived in a tropical forest, fresh surface water was rare. Water from the cenote not only sated the Mayans thirst, it also provided irrigation water for their crops when rain was scarce.

Despite their knowledge, however, the Mayans were only human. By 900, political disagreements and civil wars -- together with crop failures, disease, and other natural disasters -- apparently forced the Mayans to abandon many of their great cities. Some fled to Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula, where they built a new empire ruled from the military citadel of Chichen Itza. But this society also fell in the 1400s, a victim of internal strife and invasion from hostile neighbors.

Though their empire is long gone, the Mayans live on. An estimated 1.5 million to 4.5 million descendants of the Mayans inhabit southern Central America. In Mexico's Yucatan region, many residents still speak Maya languages and wear clothing virtually indistinguishable from that depicted in ancient carvings. And, like their ancestors, they pursue a spiritual life still colored by ancient beliefs in the gods of the corn and the jaguar. In the words of noted local poet Mediz Bolio, many locals may speak in Spanish -- but they think in Mayan

DAILY LIFE

Class Society: The Maya had a class society. There were slaves, peasants, craftsmen, nobility, priests, and leaders. There were also warriors. At the top were the nobles and priests. The middle class had the craftsmen, traders, and warriors. At the bottom were farmers, other workers, and slaves.

Craftsmen: The Mayas wove beautiful fabrics. They made musical instruments like drums, shell horns, and castanets. Their statues were incredible and huge.  Archaeologists can tell a great deal about the ancient Maya from their wonderful pottery and well crafted clay figures. The art they created honored their gods, their leaders, and their daily life. 

Slaves: Slaves were people who were captured from warring tribes. Slaves worked in the homes of noble families. Some slaves cared for the children. Some cleaned the house. Still others worked in the fields.

GOVERNMENT

One noble family controlled each city.  When the ruling noble died, his job passed to his son.  No one else got a shot at it. The noble families’ right to rule originated with the Hero Twins. Each noble family was supposedly a direct descendant of one of the Hero Twins. That gave them the justification they needed to keep their job. They were directly related to the gods.

The ruling noble did not do his job alone. Part of his job was to select a council of elders and warriors to help him rule.  Other people were additionally selected to help run the government. Some people were chosen to enforce laws. Others were chosen to act as judges. So the Mayas ruled themselves via a system of city-states.

Like the ancient Greeks, the Maya city-states were both independent and intertwined. The Maya people all spoke the same language. They used the same system of counting. They worshiped the same gods. They told the same myths. They had the same laws. They wore the same style clothing. They thought of themselves as one people.

Unlike the ancient Greeks, Maya cities were interconnected with marvelous roads. Archaeologists believe that once, long ago, there were hundreds of Maya cities. Each Maya city had a palace, some temples, some pyramids, a central marketplace, and of course, a ball court.

The Mayas built an empire. The Maya civilization lasted for 1500 years. No one knows why this empire failed. It remains a mystery. 

ARCHITECTURE

The Mayas were master builders.  They did not use metal. Their tools were made of stone, wood, and shell.  Without metal tools, they built huge cities with strong buildings and pyramids that were 200 feet high.  Here are some of the things they built:

Cities:  The Mayas built many cities.  Each city was built in a similar way. Each Maya city had a central marketplace. Every city had a large plaza where people could gather. Every city had huge pyramids, temples, at least one ball court, and a palace fr the city ruler.

Each city was a center of learning and religion for the people who lived nearby.

Cities were connected with extremely well built roads that run for miles through the jungle and swamps.

Two of their largest cities were Tikal (tee KAHL) located in the present day country of Guatemala, and Copan (ko PAHN) located in the present day country of Honduras.

Stela: A stela is a very large stone slab inscribed with hieroglyphics. Stelas were always built to celebrate the K'atun, the special festival held every 20 years. But a stela might be built to honor any important occasion. The hieroglyphics inscribed on the stela told about the event. 

Stelas were placed where people could see them. Often, stelas were designed with drawings so that people could better understand them.

Ancient Civilizations Reading: Carter, Christian, Leo

ANCIENT ROMAN CIVILIZATION

Carter, Christian, Leo

LEGENDS

The ancient Romans loved to hear the story of Romulus and Remus. In their eyes, this story explained why Rome had the right to rule.

According to the legend, Romulus and Remus justified their right to rule because their mother was a princess and their father was the war god Mars.

The legend of Romulus and Remus

Rhea was married to Mars, the Roman god of war. Rhea had twin sons. She loved her boys, but there were plots afoot by other gods and goddesses to harm her father, herself, her husband, and her children. To protect the boys, she set them adrift on the river, hoping someone would find them. Who would not love such beautiful boys?

Sure enough, first they were found by a she-wolf who fed them. Then a shepherd and his wife adopted the boys.

As the twins grew older, they decided they did not want to take care of sheep. They wanted to be kings. They decided to build a city on the shores of the Tiber. They both wanted to be the only king. They quarreled. In a fit of rage, Romulus picked up a rock, killed his brother, and made himself king.

That’s how Rome started.

DAILY LIFE

We know quite a bit about Roman government, which was famous for power and law, and a great deal about Roman religion with its many Roman gods and festivals.  

Rome grew from an important city into a huge, crowded, noisy, smoky, dusty city, with beautiful temples and public buildings. The rich had gracious homes, each with an entrance atrium, which was the center of family life.  For those who were not quite as rich, there were apartment buildings, some quite nice ones, and there were shabby tenements for the poor. Narrow streets wound between the seven hills.

Some people walked around Rome. Some were carried in covered litters, with curtained couches carried on poles by slaves. Soldiers strode though town in chain mail or leather armor. Workmen hurried in belted tunics of dark wool. Before daylight, boys hurried to school. Later in the day, Roman citizens strolled around town in white wool tunics. Shops lined the streets. 

Down in the Forum, courts were in session, and the great Senate orators met and argued.

Even for the poor, life in the city was lively. There was always something going on, like the many religious festivals with entertainment paid for by the rich, and chariot racing with an open track that ran between the seven hills. These were free spectacles that all the people could enjoy.

GOVERNMENT

Julius Caesar was a great general and an important leader in ancient Rome.

During his lifetime, he had held just about every important title in the Roman Republic including consul, tribune of the people, high commander of the army, and high priest. 

He suggested new laws, most of which were approved by the Senate. 

He reorganized the army. 

He improved the way the provinces were governed. 

The Romans even named a month after him, the month of July for Julius Caesar.

When Julius Caesar said he had something to say, the people flocked to the Forum to hear his ideas. His ideas had been good ones. The people trusted him. Julius Caesar told the people that he could solve Rome's problems.

After the people of Rome had chased away the last of the Etruscan kings, the people declared Rome to be a republic. What is a republic? A republic is a government run by elected officials. 

The new government of the Roman Republic ordered the letters SPQR to be chiseled on   public buildings, armor, coins, and even park benches. The letters SPQR were chiseled on anything that belonged to the state. 

Under the Republic, the state was composed of the Senate and the People of Rome. That's what SPQR stood for - ‘Senatus Populus Que Romanus’ - the Senate and the People of Rome. 

It was a publicity campaign, and it worked!  Every time the people saw the letters SPQR, they were reassured that things had changed. The kings were gone. It was a time of new leadership and new government. It was the time of the Roman Republic. 

CULTURE & ARCHITECTURE

The ancient Romans loved chariot racing. In early Roman times, young nobles used to race their chariots around the 7 hills of Rome. People had to scatter to get out of the way. They stopped for no one.

In the 6c BCE (about 2,500 years ago!), the ancient Romans built the Circus Maximus in the city of Rome. Basically, the Maximus was a race track. It was designed to race chariots. Women could attend the races. They could sit with men. That was very unusual. 

The original Circus Maximus was built out of wood. It burnt down a couple of times. During the Roman Empire, the Circus Maximus was rebuilt using marble and concrete (an ancient Roman invention!). 

The Circus Maximus was not the only circus in the Roman Empire. The Romans built circuses (outdoor racetracks) all over the Empire. The Circus Maximus was the most well known race track. 

It could seat over 250,000 people! Admission was free. Anyone could attend the races, including Rome's poor. There were races every day. It was the height of success to race in the Circus Maximus.

The Colosseum was a huge public entertainment center.

The Colosseum could seat 45,000 spectators. Some people were not lucky enough to have a seat in the Colosseum. If you didn't mind standing, the Colosseum could hold up to 70,000 spectators!

This is where the ancient Romans gathered to watch bloody combat between gladiators, and battles between men and wild animals. This is where they threw people to the lions! To see men being killed was very entertaining to the ancient Romans. On occasion, they flooded the Colosseum with water, to hold naval battles. During the battles, many competitors died.

The ancient Romans were great builders. They built things to last. The Colosseum was built of concrete, faced with stone, as were most amphitheaters. It was built in the early days of the Roman Empire, around 70 CE. It was designed to host huge spectacles.  Anyone could attend the events in the Colosseum. Admission was free.  

There is an old expression, "All roads lead to Rome." In ancient Rome, Rome was the heart of the empire. Each time a new city was conquered, a road was built from that city back to Rome.

Roads were built in straight lines. Many had gutters. Along the side of road, the Romans built road signs called milestones. Milestones did not give any information about other towns in the area. Milestones told how far it was back to Rome.